“…Fakat kanaatimce insan beyni ile makine arasındaki asıl fark, insan beyninin estetik mahiyette müessirleri alıp onlar üzerinde işleyebilmesi ve yine estetik mahiyette olan kararlar verebilmesine, verilen bir işi yapıp yapmamak hususunda kendisini serbest hissetmesine mukabil makinede bu vasıfların benzerlerinin yok oluşudur. Bu vasıfları karakterize eden husus hepsinin de bir belirsizlik unsuru ihtiva etmesi, bunların şaşmaz bir şekilde uydukları kaidelerin mevcut olmayışıdır. Belirsizlik karakterini haiz olan insan dışı tabiat hâdiseleri mevcuttur. Bunlar atom içinde cereyan eden olaylardır. Bu itibarla nispeten küçük sayıda atom içinde cereyan eden olaylar böyle makinelerin işleyişinde müessir hale getirilebilirse, makinelerin estetik bakımdan da insan beynine benzetileceği ümit edilebilecektir.”
Matematikçi Cahit Arf’ın 1959 yılında Erzurum Atatürk Üniversitesi’nde yaptığı “Makine Düşünebilir Mi ve Nasıl Düşünebilir?” isimli konuşmada sarf ettiği bu sözler, yıllar sonra nobel ödüllü fizikçi Roger Penrose tarafından geliştirilecek olan ORCH-OR (Orchestrated objective reduction) modelinin çekirdeğindeki düşüncenin erken bir ifadesini yansıtmaktadır. Bu görüşe göre, klasik bilgi işleme algoritmaları şeklinde formüle edilemeyen özgür irade, yaratıcılık, estetik gibi olguların temelinde yatan belirsizlik kuantum mekaniğinden kaynaklanmaktadır. Kuantum mekaniğinin ayrılmaz bir parçası olan ancak henüz tam olarak anlaşılamamış dalga fonksiyonunun çöküşü gibi fenomenler belirsizliğin temel kaynağı olup bunların anlaşılmasıyla zihnin işleyişi de anlaşılacak, dolayısıyla insan zihninin tüm özelliklerini barındıran yapay zihinler tasarlanabilecektir. Penrose bu tartışmalı görüşünü üç dayanaktan yararlanarak geliştirir: matematiksel, fiziksel ve biyolojik [1], [2].
1. Matematiksel Dayanak
Penrose’un hareket noktası da olan matematiksel dayanağı 20. Yüzyıl’ın ilk yarısında Gödel tarafından ortaya atılan eksiklik teoremleridir [3]. Bu teoremlere göre:
1) Herhangi bir tutarlı formel sistem tam değildir.
2) Herhangi bir tutarlı formel sistemin tutarlığı, bu sistemin kendi içinde kanıtlanamaz.
Burada tutarlılık formel sistem içerisinde hem kendisi hem de değili kanıtlanabilen önermelerin bulunmaması, tamlık ise sistemin aksiyomlarından oluşturulabilecek tüm önermelerin ya kendilerinin ya da değillerinin kanıtlanabilir olmasıdır. Penrose’a göre bu teoremlerden insan zihninin bilgisayar gibi modellenemeyeceği sonucu çıkar. Bilgisayarlar, ya da daha matematiksel bir deyişle Turing makineleri, bir girdiyi alıp çeşitli algoritmalarla onu işledikten sonra çıktı olarak vermek üzere tasarlanmışlardır. Gödel teoremine göre bu tür sistemler doğruluğu sistem içerisinde kanıtlanamayan ancak doğru olan önermeler içerirler. Bu önermelerin doğruluğunu kanıtlayabilmek için başka bir formel sistemin kullanılması gerekir, ancak bu sistemde de sistem içerisinde kanıtlanamayan önermeler bulunacaktır, ki bunları kanıtlamak için de başka formel sistemlere ihtiyaç vardır. Bu durum kurulacak tüm formel sistemler için geçerli olacaktır. Penrose’a göre bir formel sistemin içinde kanıtlanamayan bu önermelerin doğruluğu insanlar tarafından bilinebildiği ve Gödel teoremi gibi tüm formel sistemler için geçerli olan bir teorem insanlar tarafından kanıtlanabildiği için insan zihni bir Turing makinesine indirgenemez. Dolayısıyla insan zihni girdileri alıp belirli bir algoritmayla çıktılara ulaşan bir makine gibi düşünülemez. Bu noktada Penrose şu soruyu sorar: zihin eğer beyindeki fiziksel süreçler sonucunda ortaya çıkan bir olguysa, nasıl bir fiziksel süreç bu tür algoritmik olmayan bir yapıya yol açabilir?
2. Fiziksel Dayanak
Bu noktadan itibaren Penrose’un fiziksel dayanağını irdelememiz gerekmektedir. Penrose’a göre bu tür algoritmik olmayan hesaplamaların kaynağı kuantum mekaniğindeki dalga fonksiyonunun çöküşü olabilir çünkü ölçüm yapılana kadar hesaplanabilir bir şekilde evrilen dalga fonksiyonu ölçümle birlikte rastgele bir sonuca çökmektedir. Bu nedenle beyinde algoritmik olarak hesaplanamayan bir sürecin en akla uygun açıklaması dalga fonksiyonunun çöküşüdür. Ancak dalga fonksiyonu tamamen rastgele bir değere çöktüğü için bugün olduğu haliyle çöküş fenomeni matematiksel anlama gibi zihinsel işlevleri açıklayamaz. Penrose’a göre çöküşün bu rastgele karakteri henüz fiziksel olarak tam anlamıyla açıklanamadığı için ortaya çıkmaktadır ve bilinci açıklamak için öncelikle çöküşün fiziksel bir temelde açıklanması gerekmektedir. Buradan yola çıkarak kuantum mekaniğine yönelik kendi felsefi yorumunu oluşturur. Çöküşü gözleme atıf yapmadan açıklamaya çalıştığı için objektif yorumlar sınıfına dahil bu yoruma göre çöküşün nedeni belirli bir enerjinin üzerinde kütleçekimin süperpozisyon halinde bulunamamasıdır [4]. Kendi deyimiyle, geleneksel yöntem olan kütleçekimini kuantize etmek yerine kuantum mekaniğini kütleçekimleştirmeye dayanan hesaplamaları sonucunda “bir graviton seviyesi” olarak adlandırdığı bir enerji farkından fazlasının çöküşe sebep olduğunu iddia eder. Dolayısıyla çöküşün tam olarak anlaşılabilmesi için, genel görelilikle kuantum mekaniğinin birleştirilmesinden ortaya çıkan bu değerin test edilmesi ve daha bütüncül bir şekilde teorize edilmesi gerekmektedir. Bu yapıldığında zihnin algoritmik olmayan yapısının fiziksel temeli anlaşılacaktır.
3. Biyolojik Dayanak
Bu fiziksel temelin zihni açıklayabilmesi için bir şekilde beyinde ve sinir sisteminde belirli bir süre varlığını devam ettirebilen kuantum sistemlerinin var olması gerekmektedir. Ancak beyin gibi sıcak ve nemli bir ortamda kuantum sistemleri çevreleriyle rastgele bir şekilde etkileştikleri için zihin gibi, büyük boyutlarda gözlemlenebilen bir fenomeni ortaya çıkaracak kadar uzun süre kuantum özelliklerini koruyamazlar. Bu noktada Penrose’un üçüncü dayanağı olan biyolojik dayanak devreye girmektedir. Amerikalı anesteziyolog Stuart Hameroff’un katkısıyla geliştirilen bu dayanağa göre nöronlarda yer alan mikrotübüller kuantum sistemlerinin çevresel etkilerden yalıtık şekilde varlıklarını devam ettirebilecekleri koşullar sağlamaktadır. Böylece milyonlarca mikrotübülün kolektif etkisi olarak zihin fenomeni ortaya çıkmaktadır. Hameroff bu hipotezini bazı deneysel sonuçlarla desteklemiş [5], ayrıca anestezik maddelerin bilinci etkilemesinin sebebinin de mikotübüllerdeki elektrik dipollarla elektromanyetik etkileşime girerek onların kuantum eşfazlılığını bozmaları olduğunu iddia etmiştir [6].
4. Eleştiriler
Penrose’un matematikten biyolojiye uzanan bu akıl yürütmesi gerek filozoflardan gerekse bilim insanlarından birçok eleştiri almıştır. İlk olarak en temel itiraz insan düşüncesinin tutarlı olmadığı, dolayısıyla Gödel teoremlerinden zorunlu olarak insan zihninin algoritmik bir yapıda çalışmadığı sonucu çıkarsanamayacağıdır [7]. Buna göre insan zihni sıkça çelişkili düşünceler barındırdığı ve yanlış fikirlerin doğruluğuna inandığı için tutarlı olarak düşünülemez, bu nedenle de algoritmik bir şekilde çalışıp çalışmadığı sonucuna Gödel teoremiyle varılamaz. Ayrıca insan muhakemesi mekanistik bir şekilde kanıt aramanın yanında deneme-yanılma ve esinlenme gibi tamamen farklı yöntemler de kullandığı için onu diğer makinalarla karşılaştırıp algoritmik olmayan süreçler içerdiğini söylemek doğru değildir [8].
Penrose’un kuantum mekaniği üzerine görüşleri de birçok eleştiriye maruz kalmıştır. Objektif çöküş teorilerinin temelde amaçladığı Schrödinger denklemine birtakım eklemeler yaparak dalga fonksiyonunun çöküşüne gözlemden bağımsız bir temel oluşturmaktır. Ancak denkleme eklenen bu terimler nedeniyle kurama özel görelilik etkilerini dahil etmek matematiksel olarak zorlaşmaktadır. Bu durumda da kuramın açıklayıcı gücü özel görelilik etkilerinin dahil edilebildiği orijinal yoruma kıyasla azalmaktadır. Her ne kadar Penrose bazı ölçümlerle kuramının test edilebileceğini iddia etse de bu ölçümler yakın gelecekte mümkün gözükmemektedir, dolayısıyla ek bir empirik başarı da sunamadığı için açıklayıcı gücü daha kısıtlı olan bu kuram bilim insanları tarafından kabul görmemektedir.
Son olarak mikrotübüllerde kuantum sistemlerinin yeterli bir süre bozulmadan kalabileceği görüşüne yönelik de eleştiriler vardır. Hameroff’un katkısıyla ortaya koyulan bazı deneysel kanıtların aslında farklı etkiler nedeniyle gözlemlendiği veya kuantum davranışına atıf yapmadan da açıklanabileceği kabul görmüştür [9]. Ayrıca zihinsel aktiviteye yol açacak kadar güçlü bir etkinin oluşması için çok sayıda birbirinden ayırt edilemez parçacığın eş fazlı bir şekilde kuantum davranışı sergilemesi gerekmektedir, ancak mikrotübüllerin yapısına aynı tür moleküllerin dahil olmasını sağlarken farklı tür molekülleri engelleyecek bilinen herhangi bir mekanizma bulunmamaktadır [10]. Böyle bir mekanizma olsa dahi mikrotübüllerdeki parçacıkların bilgi alışverişi yapmak için dışarıdaki parçacıklarla etkileşime girdiklerinde eşfazlılıklarını korumaya nasıl devam edebileceklerine yönelik bir açıklama bulunmamaktadır. Son olarak, günümüzde anestezik maddelerin etkisine yönelik kabul edilen görüş nöron yüzeylerindeki iyon kanallarını etkiledikleri için bilinci baskıladıkları yönündedir [11]. Bu kanallarda kuantum etkileri gözlemlenemediği için de bilincin kuantum etkileri sonucunda ortaya çıktığına yönelik görüş kabul görmemektedir.
5. Sonuç
Sonuç olarak her ne kadar Penrose’un zihin üzerine görüşleri şu an için çoğunlukla spekülatif olarak değerlendirilse de, matematikten biyolojiye uzanacak şekilde son derece kapsamlı ve titiz bir biçimde inşa edilmiştir. Penrose ve Hameroff’a göre mevcut bilimsel bilgimizle zihni, en kolay test edilebilecek şekilde açıklayan bu görüş, şüphesiz ki konuyla ilgilenen bilim insanları ve felsefecilerin önünde yeni kapılar açacaktır. Ancak şunu da belirtmek gerekir ki parça parça test edilmesi mümkün olan bu görüşün şu an için ikna edici bir empirik başarısı bulunmamakta, ve özellikle fiziksel dayanağın yakın gelecekte de test edilebilmesi öngörülmemektedir.
Yazar: Yalın Başay
Yazının orijinal Medium üzerinden yayınlanan haline erişmek için: https://medium.com/qturkey/roger-penrose-ve-kuantum-zihinler-dbb14d9ce511
Kaynaklar ve İleri Okuma
[1] R. Penrose. “The Emperor’s New Mind”, Oxford University Press, (1989).
[2] R. Penrose. “Shadows of the Mind”, Oxford University Press, (1994).
[3] Raatikainen, Panu. “Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorems”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2022 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), forthcoming URL= <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/goedel-incompleteness/>.
[4] R. Penrose. “On Gravity’s role in Quantum State Reduction”, General Relativity and Gravitation, vol. 28, 5, 581–600 (1996).
[5] H. Fröhlich. “Long-Range Coherence and Energy Storage in Biological Systems”, International Journal of Quantum Chemistry, vol. 2, 641–649 (1968).
[6] S. Hameroff, R. Penrose. “Orchestrated reduction of quantum coherence in brain microtubules: A model for consciousness”, Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, vol. 40, 3–4, 453–480, (1996).
[7] G. LaForte, P. J. Hayes, K. M. Ford. “Why Gödel’s theorem cannot refute computationalism”, Artificial Intelligence 104, 265–286, (1998).
[8] S. Feferman. “Penrose’s Gödelian argument”, Psyche, vol. 2, 21–32, (1996).
[9] L. K. McKemmish et al. “Penrose-Hameroff orchestrated objective-reduction proposal for human consciousness is not biologically feasible” Physical Review E, vol. 80, 021912, (2009).
[10] R. Grush, P. S. Churchland. “Gaps in Penrose’s Toilings”, Journal of Consciousness Studies, vol. 2, 1, 10–29, (1995).
[11] M. T. Alkire et al. “Consciousness and Anesthesia”, Science, vol. 322, 5903, 876–880, (2008).
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Thanks for your useful article. Other thing is that mesothelioma is generally caused by the inhalation of materials from mesothelioma, which is a carcinogenic material. It’s commonly viewed among laborers in the structure industry who have long experience of asbestos. It is also caused by moving into asbestos insulated buildings for some time of time, Genetic makeup plays a crucial role, and some consumers are more vulnerable to the risk in comparison with others.
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It is my belief that mesothelioma is most lethal cancer. It has unusual features. The more I really look at it the greater I am persuaded it does not conduct itself like a true solid cells cancer. If perhaps mesothelioma is really a rogue virus-like infection, therefore there is the probability of developing a vaccine in addition to offering vaccination for asbestos subjected people who are vulnerable to high risk of developing future asbestos relevant malignancies. Thanks for discussing your ideas on this important health issue.
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